"""Two-player nonlocal game."""
from __future__ import annotations
from collections import defaultdict
import cvxpy
import numpy as np
from toqito.random import random_povm
from toqito.matrix_ops import tensor
from toqito.helper import update_odometer, npa_constraints
[docs]
class NonlocalGame:
r"""
Create two-player nonlocal game object.
*Nonlocal games* are a mathematical framework that abstractly models a
physical system. This game is played between two players, Alice and Bob, who
are not allowed to communicate with each other once the game has started and
who play cooperative against an adversary referred to as the referee.
The nonlocal game framework was originally introduced in [CHTW04_2]_.
References
==========
.. [CHTW04_2] Cleve, Richard, Hoyer, Peter, Toner, Benjamin, and Watrous, John
"Consequences and limits of nonlocal strategies"
Computational Complexity 2004. Proceedings. 19th IEEE Annual Conference.
https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0404076
"""
def __init__(self, prob_mat: np.ndarray, pred_mat: np.ndarray, reps: int = 1) -> None:
"""
Construct nonlocal game object.
:param prob_mat: A matrix whose (x, y)-entry gives the probability
that the referee will give Alice the value `x` and Bob
the value `y`.
:param pred_mat: A four-dimensional matrix whose (a,b,x,y)-entry gives
the outcome for answers "a" and "b" given questions
"x" and "y".
:param reps: Number of parallel repetitions to perform. Default is 1.
"""
if reps == 1:
self.prob_mat = prob_mat
self.pred_mat = pred_mat
self.reps = reps
else:
num_alice_out, num_bob_out, num_alice_in, num_bob_in = pred_mat.shape
self.prob_mat = tensor(prob_mat, reps)
pred_mat2 = np.zeros(
(
num_alice_out**reps,
num_bob_out**reps,
num_alice_in**reps,
num_bob_in**reps,
)
)
i_ind = np.zeros(reps, dtype=int)
j_ind = np.zeros(reps, dtype=int)
for i in range(num_alice_in**reps):
for j in range(num_bob_in**reps):
to_tensor = np.empty([reps, num_alice_out, num_bob_out])
for k in range(reps - 1, -1, -1):
to_tensor[k] = pred_mat[:, :, i_ind[k], j_ind[k]]
pred_mat2[:, :, i, j] = tensor(to_tensor)
j_ind = update_odometer(j_ind, num_bob_in * np.ones(reps))
i_ind = update_odometer(i_ind, num_alice_in * np.ones(reps))
self.pred_mat = pred_mat2
self.reps = reps
[docs]
@classmethod
def from_bcs_game(cls, constraints: list[np.ndarray], reps: int = 1) -> "NonlocalGame":
"""
Construct nonlocal game object from a binary constraint system game.
:raises ValueError: At least one constraint needs to be supplied.
:param constraints: A list of m matrices corresponding to the `m`
constraints in the BCS game. Each constraint matrix is
an `n`-dimensional matrix of shape `2 x 2 x ... x 2`.
The `(i, j, k, ...)`-th entry is 1 if and only if the
contraint is satisfied given the values v_1 = i, v_2 = j,
v_3 = k, ..., and otherwise 0.
:param reps: Number of parallel repetitions to perform. Default is 1.
:return: An instance of a nonlocal game object.
"""
num_constraints = len(constraints)
if num_constraints == 0:
raise ValueError("At least 1 constraint is required")
num_variables = constraints[0].ndim
# Retrieve dependent variables for each constraint
dependent_variables = np.zeros((num_constraints, num_variables))
# `v_i` is _not_ a dependent variable of `c_j` if all entries in
# the `i`-th dimension of `constraints[j]` are equal, i.e.:
# c_j[:, ..., :, 0, : ..., :] == c_j[:, ..., :, 1, : ..., :]
for j in range(num_constraints):
for i in range(num_variables):
dependent_variables[j, i] = np.diff(constraints[j], axis=i).any()
# Calculate probability matrix P(x, y) where:
# x: uniformly randomly-selected constraint `c_x`
# y: uniformly randomly-selected variable `v_y` in `c_x`
prob_mat = np.zeros((num_constraints, num_variables))
for j in range(num_constraints):
p_x = 1.0 / num_constraints
num_dependent_vars = dependent_variables[j].sum()
p_y = dependent_variables[j] / num_dependent_vars
prob_mat[j] = p_x * p_y
# Compute prediction matrix of outcomes given questions and answer pairs:
# a: Alice's truth assignment to all variables in `c_x`
# b: Bob's truth assignment for `v_y` in `c_x`
pred_mat = np.zeros((2**num_variables, 2, num_constraints, num_variables))
for x_ques in range(num_constraints):
for a_ans in range(pred_mat.shape[0]):
# Convert to binary representation
bin_a = [int(x) for x in np.binary_repr(a_ans)]
truth_assignment = np.zeros(num_variables, dtype=np.int8)
truth_assignment[-len(bin_a) :] = bin_a
truth_assignment = tuple(truth_assignment)
for y_ques in range(num_variables):
# The verifier can only accept the answer if Bob's truth assignment
# is consistent with Alice's
b_ans = truth_assignment[y_ques]
pred_mat[a_ans, b_ans, x_ques, y_ques] = constraints[x_ques][truth_assignment]
return cls(prob_mat, pred_mat, reps)
[docs]
def classical_value(self) -> float:
"""
Compute the classical value of the nonlocal game.
This function has been adapted from the QETLAB package.
:return: A value between [0, 1] representing the classical value.
"""
(
num_alice_outputs,
num_bob_outputs,
num_alice_inputs,
num_bob_inputs,
) = self.pred_mat.shape
for x_alice_in in range(num_alice_inputs):
for y_bob_in in range(num_bob_inputs):
self.pred_mat[:, :, x_alice_in, y_bob_in] = (
self.prob_mat[x_alice_in, y_bob_in] * self.pred_mat[:, :, x_alice_in, y_bob_in]
)
p_win = float("-inf")
if num_alice_outputs**num_alice_inputs < num_bob_outputs**num_bob_inputs:
self.pred_mat = np.transpose(self.pred_mat, (1, 0, 3, 2))
(
num_alice_outputs,
num_bob_outputs,
num_alice_inputs,
num_bob_inputs,
) = self.pred_mat.shape
self.pred_mat = np.transpose(self.pred_mat, (0, 2, 1, 3))
# Paralleize for loop.
# if num_bob_outputs ** num_bob_inputs <= 10 ** 6:
# parallel_threads = 1
# else:
# parallel_threads = 5
for i in range(num_alice_outputs**num_bob_inputs):
# Convert :code:`number` to the base :code:`base` with digits :code:`digits`.
number = i
base = num_bob_outputs
digits = num_bob_inputs
b_ind = np.zeros(digits)
for j in range(digits):
b_ind[digits - j - 1] = np.mod(number, base)
number = np.floor(number / base)
pred_alice = np.zeros((num_alice_outputs, num_alice_inputs))
for y_bob_in in range(num_bob_inputs):
pred_alice = pred_alice + self.pred_mat[:, :, int(b_ind[y_bob_in]), y_bob_in]
tgval = np.sum(np.amax(pred_alice, axis=0))
p_win = max(p_win, tgval)
return p_win
[docs]
def quantum_value_lower_bound(
self,
dim: int = 2,
iters: int = 5,
tol: float = 10e-6,
):
r"""
Compute a lower bound on the quantum value of a nonlocal game [LD07]_.
Calculates a lower bound on the maximum value that the specified
nonlocal game can take on in quantum mechanical settings where Alice and
Bob each have access to `dim`-dimensional quantum system.
This function works by starting with a randomly-generated POVM for Bob,
and then optimizing Alice's POVM and the shared entangled state. Then
Alice's POVM and the entangled state are fixed, and Bob's POVM is
optimized. And so on, back and forth between Alice and Bob until
convergence is reached.
Note that the algorithm is not guaranteed to obtain the optimal local
bound and can get stuck in local minimum values. The alleviate this, the
`iter` parameter allows one to run the algorithm some pre-specified
number of times and keep the highest value obtained.
The algorithm is based on the alternating projections algorithm as it
can be applied to Bell inequalities as shown in [LD07]_.
The alternating projection algorithm has also been referred to as the
"see-saw" algorithm as it goes back and forth between the following two
semidefinite programs:
.. math::
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}
\textbf{SDP-1:} \quad & \\
\text{maximize:} \quad & \sum_{(x,y \in \Sigma)} \pi(x,y)
\sum_{(a,b) \in \Gamma}
V(a,b|x,y)
\langle B_b^y, A_a^x \rangle \\
\text{subject to:} \quad & \sum_{a \in \Gamma_{\mathsf{A}}}=
\tau, \qquad \qquad
\forall x \in \Sigma_{\mathsf{A}}, \\
\quad & A_a^x \in \text{Pos}(\mathcal{A}),
\qquad
\forall x \in \Sigma_{\mathsf{A}}, \
\forall a \in \Gamma_{\mathsf{A}}, \\
& \tau \in \text{D}(\mathcal{A}).
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
.. math::
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}
\textbf{SDP-2:} \quad & \\
\text{maximize:} \quad & \sum_{(x,y \in \Sigma)} \pi(x,y)
\sum_{(a,b) \in \Gamma} V(a,b|x,y)
\langle B_b^y, A_a^x \rangle \\
\text{subject to:} \quad & \sum_{b \in \Gamma_{\mathsf{B}}}=
\mathbb{I}, \qquad \qquad
\forall y \in \Sigma_{\mathsf{B}}, \\
\quad & B_b^y \in \text{Pos}(\mathcal{B}),
\qquad \forall y \in \Sigma_{\mathsf{B}}, \
\forall b \in \Gamma_{\mathsf{B}}.
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
Examples
==========
The CHSH game
The CHSH game is a two-player nonlocal game with the following
probability distribution and question and answer sets.
.. math::
\begin{equation}
\begin{aligned}
\pi(x,y) = \frac{1}{4}, \qquad (x,y) \in \Sigma_A \times \Sigma_B,
\qquad \text{and} \qquad (a, b) \in \Gamma_A \times \Gamma_B,
\end{aligned}
\end{equation}
where
.. math::
\begin{equation}
\Sigma_A = \{0, 1\}, \quad \Sigma_B = \{0, 1\}, \quad \Gamma_A =
\{0,1\}, \quad \text{and} \quad \Gamma_B = \{0, 1\}.
\end{equation}
Alice and Bob win the CHSH game if and only if the following equation is
satisfied.
.. math::
\begin{equation}
a \oplus b = x \land y.
\end{equation}
Recall that :math:`\oplus` refers to the XOR operation.
The optimal quantum value of CHSH is
:math:`\cos(\pi/8)^2 \approx 0.8536` where the optimal classical value
is :math:`3/4`.
>>> import numpy as np
>>> from toqito.nonlocal_games.nonlocal_game import NonlocalGame
>>>
>>> dim = 2
>>> num_alice_inputs, num_alice_outputs = 2, 2
>>> num_bob_inputs, num_bob_outputs = 2, 2
>>> prob_mat = np.array([[1 / 4, 1 / 4], [1 / 4, 1 / 4]])
>>> pred_mat = np.zeros(
>>> (num_alice_outputs, num_bob_outputs, num_alice_inputs, num_bob_inputs)
>>> )
>>>
>>> for a_alice in range(num_alice_outputs):
>>> for b_bob in range(num_bob_outputs):
>>> for x_alice in range(num_alice_inputs):
>>> for y_bob in range(num_bob_inputs):
>>> if np.mod(a_alice + b_bob + x_alice * y_bob, dim) == 0:
>>> pred_mat[a_alice, b_bob, x_alice, y_bob] = 1
>>>
>>> chsh = NonlocalGame(prob_mat, pred_mat)
>>> chsh.quantum_value_lower_bound()
0.8535533840915605
References
==========
.. [LD07] Liang, Yeong-Cherng, and Andrew C. Doherty.
"Bounds on quantum correlations in Bell-inequality experiments."
Physical Review A 75.4 (2007): 042103.
https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0608128
:param dim: The dimension of the quantum system that Alice and Bob have
access to (default = 2).
:param iters: The number of times to run the alternating projection
algorithm.
:param tol: The tolerance before quitting out of the alternating
projection semidefinite program.
:return: The lower bound on the quantum value of a nonlocal game.
"""
# Get number of inputs and outputs.
_, num_outputs_bob, _, num_inputs_bob = self.pred_mat.shape
best_lower_bound = float("-inf")
for _ in range(iters):
# Generate a set of random POVMs for Bob. These measurements serve
# as a rough starting point for the alternating projection
# algorithm.
bob_tmp = random_povm(dim, num_inputs_bob, num_outputs_bob)
bob_povms = defaultdict(int)
for y_ques in range(num_inputs_bob):
for b_ans in range(num_outputs_bob):
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans] = bob_tmp[:, :, y_ques, b_ans]
# Run the alternating projection algorithm between the two SDPs.
it_diff = 1
prev_win = -1
best = float("-inf")
while it_diff > tol:
# Optimize over Alice's measurement operators while fixing
# Bob's. If this is the first iteration, then the previously
# randomly generated operators in the outer loop are Bob's.
# Otherwise, Bob's operators come from running the next SDP.
alice_povms, lower_bound = self.__optimize_alice(dim, bob_povms)
bob_povms, lower_bound = self.__optimize_bob(dim, alice_povms)
it_diff = lower_bound - prev_win
prev_win = lower_bound
# As the SDPs keep alternating, check if the winning probability
# becomes any higher. If so, replace with new best.
best = max(best, lower_bound)
best_lower_bound = max(best, best_lower_bound)
return best_lower_bound
def __optimize_alice(self, dim, bob_povms) -> tuple[dict, float]:
"""Fix Bob's measurements and optimize over Alice's measurements."""
# Get number of inputs and outputs.
(
num_outputs_alice,
num_outputs_bob,
num_inputs_alice,
num_inputs_bob,
) = self.pred_mat.shape
# The cvxpy package does not support optimizing over 4-dimensional
# objects. To overcome this, we use a dictionary to index between the
# questions and answers, while the cvxpy variables held at this
# positions are `dim`-by-`dim` cvxpy variables.
alice_povms = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for x_ques in range(num_inputs_alice):
for a_ans in range(num_outputs_alice):
alice_povms[x_ques, a_ans] = cvxpy.Variable((dim, dim), PSD=True)
tau = cvxpy.Variable((dim, dim), PSD=True)
# .. math::
# \sum_{(x,y) \in \Sigma} \pi(x, y) V(a,b|x,y) \ip{B_b^y}{A_a^x}
win = 0
is_real = True
for x_ques in range(num_inputs_alice):
for y_ques in range(num_inputs_bob):
for a_ans in range(num_outputs_alice):
for b_ans in range(num_outputs_bob):
if isinstance(bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans], np.ndarray):
win += (
self.prob_mat[x_ques, y_ques]
* self.pred_mat[a_ans, b_ans, x_ques, y_ques]
* cvxpy.trace(
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans].conj().T @ alice_povms[x_ques, a_ans]
)
)
if isinstance(
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans],
cvxpy.expressions.variable.Variable,
):
is_real = False
win += (
self.prob_mat[x_ques, y_ques]
* self.pred_mat[a_ans, b_ans, x_ques, y_ques]
* cvxpy.trace(
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans].value.conj().T
@ alice_povms[x_ques, a_ans]
)
)
if is_real:
objective = cvxpy.Maximize(cvxpy.real(win))
else:
objective = cvxpy.Maximize(win)
constraints = []
# Sum over "a" for all "x" for Alice's measurements.
for x_ques in range(num_inputs_alice):
alice_sum_a = 0
for a_ans in range(num_outputs_alice):
alice_sum_a += alice_povms[x_ques, a_ans]
constraints.append(alice_sum_a == tau)
constraints.append(cvxpy.trace(tau) == 1)
problem = cvxpy.Problem(objective, constraints)
lower_bound = problem.solve()
return alice_povms, lower_bound
def __optimize_bob(self, dim, alice_povms) -> tuple[dict, float]:
"""Fix Alice's measurements and optimize over Bob's measurements."""
# Get number of inputs and outputs.
(
num_outputs_alice,
num_outputs_bob,
num_inputs_alice,
num_inputs_bob,
) = self.pred_mat.shape
# Now, optimize over Bob's measurement operators and fix Alice's
# operators as those are coming from the previous SDP.
bob_povms = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for y_ques in range(num_inputs_bob):
for b_ans in range(num_outputs_bob):
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans] = cvxpy.Variable((dim, dim), PSD=True)
win = 0
for x_ques in range(num_inputs_alice):
for y_ques in range(num_inputs_bob):
for a_ans in range(num_outputs_alice):
for b_ans in range(num_outputs_bob):
win += (
self.prob_mat[x_ques, y_ques]
* self.pred_mat[a_ans, b_ans, x_ques, y_ques]
* cvxpy.trace(
bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans].H @ alice_povms[x_ques, a_ans].value
)
)
objective = cvxpy.Maximize(win)
constraints = []
# Sum over "b" for all "y" for Bob's measurements.
for y_ques in range(num_inputs_bob):
bob_sum_b = 0
for b_ans in range(num_outputs_bob):
bob_sum_b += bob_povms[y_ques, b_ans]
constraints.append(bob_sum_b == np.identity(dim))
problem = cvxpy.Problem(objective, constraints)
lower_bound = problem.solve()
return bob_povms, lower_bound
[docs]
def nonsignaling_value(self) -> float:
"""
Compute the non-signaling value of the nonlocal game.
:return: A value between [0, 1] representing the non-signaling value.
"""
alice_out, bob_out, alice_in, bob_in = self.pred_mat.shape
dim_x, dim_y = 2, 2
constraints = []
# Define K(a,b|x,y) variable.
k_var = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for a_out in range(alice_out):
for b_out in range(bob_out):
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
k_var[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in] = cvxpy.Variable(
(dim_x, dim_y), hermitian=True
)
constraints.append(k_var[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in] >> 0)
# Define \sigma_a^x variable.
sigma = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for a_out in range(alice_out):
for x_in in range(alice_in):
sigma[a_out, x_in] = cvxpy.Variable((dim_x, dim_y), PSD=True)
# Define \rho_b^y variable.
rho = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for b_out in range(bob_out):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
rho[b_out, y_in] = cvxpy.Variable((dim_x, dim_y), PSD=True)
# Define \tau density operator variable.
tau = cvxpy.Variable((dim_x, dim_y), PSD=True)
p_win = cvxpy.Constant(0)
for a_out in range(alice_out):
for b_out in range(bob_out):
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
p_win += self.prob_mat[x_in, y_in] * cvxpy.trace(
self.pred_mat[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in].conj().T
* k_var[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in]
)
objective = cvxpy.Maximize(cvxpy.real(p_win))
# The following constraints enforce the so-called non-signaling
# constraints.
# Enforce that:
# \sum_{b \in \Gamma_B} K(a,b|x,y) = \sigma_a^x
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
for a_out in range(alice_out):
b_sum = 0
for b_out in range(bob_out):
b_sum += k_var[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in]
constraints.append(b_sum == sigma[a_out, x_in])
# Enforce non-signaling constraints on Alice marginal:
# \sum_{a \in \Gamma_A} K(a,b|x,y) = \rho_b^y
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
for b_out in range(bob_out):
a_sum = 0
for a_out in range(alice_out):
a_sum += k_var[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in]
constraints.append(a_sum == rho[b_out, y_in])
# Enforce non-signaling constraints on Bob marginal:
# \sum_{a \in \Gamma_A} \sigma_a^x = \tau
for x_in in range(alice_in):
sig_a_sum = 0
for a_out in range(alice_out):
sig_a_sum += sigma[a_out, x_in]
constraints.append(sig_a_sum == tau)
# Enforce that:
# \sum_{b \in \Gamma_B} \rho_b^y = \tau
for y_in in range(bob_in):
rho_b_sum = 0
for b_out in range(bob_out):
rho_b_sum += rho[b_out, y_in]
constraints.append(rho_b_sum == tau)
# Enforce that tau is a density operator.
constraints.append(cvxpy.trace(tau) == 1)
constraints.append(tau >> 0)
problem = cvxpy.Problem(objective, constraints)
ns_val = problem.solve()
return ns_val
[docs]
def commuting_measurement_value_upper_bound(self, k: int | str = 1) -> float:
"""
Compute an upper bound on the commuting measurement value of the nonlocal game.
This function calculates an upper bound on the commuting measurement value by
using k-levels of the NPA hierarchy [NPA]_. The NPA hierarchy is a uniform family
of semidefinite programs that converges to the commuting measurement value of
any nonlocal game.
You can determine the level of the hierarchy by a positive integer or a string
of a form like '1+ab+aab', which indicates that an intermediate level of the hierarchy
should be used, where this example uses all products of one measurement, all products of
one Alice and one Bob measurement, and all products of two Alice and one Bob measurements.
References
==========
.. [NPA] Miguel Navascues, Stefano Pironio, Antonio Acin,
"A convergent hierarchy of semidefinite programs characterizing the
set of quantum correlations."
https://arxiv.org/abs/0803.4290
:param k: The level of the NPA hierarchy to use (default=1).
:return: The upper bound on the commuting strategy value of a nonlocal game.
"""
alice_out, bob_out, alice_in, bob_in = self.pred_mat.shape
mat = defaultdict(cvxpy.Variable)
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
mat[x_in, y_in] = cvxpy.Variable(
(alice_out, bob_out), name=f"M(a, b | {x_in}, {y_in})"
)
p_win = cvxpy.Constant(0)
for a_out in range(alice_out):
for b_out in range(bob_out):
for x_in in range(alice_in):
for y_in in range(bob_in):
p_win += (
self.prob_mat[x_in, y_in]
* self.pred_mat[a_out, b_out, x_in, y_in]
* mat[x_in, y_in][a_out, b_out]
)
npa = npa_constraints(mat, k)
objective = cvxpy.Maximize(p_win)
problem = cvxpy.Problem(objective, npa)
cs_val = problem.solve()
return cs_val